Enterotoxaemia in Goats: Prevalence, Etiology, Risk Factors, and Therapeutic Approaches: A Comprehensive Review

Authors

Muhammad Mohsen, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam, PakistanFollow
Jam Kashif Zaman, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam, PakistanFollow
Amjad Hussain Mirani, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam, PakistanFollow
Nazeer Hussain Kalhoro, Sindh Institute of Animal Health, Karachi, PakistanFollow
Benazir Sahito, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Ziauddin University, Karachi, PakistanFollow

Abstract

Enterotoxaemia remains one of the most severe and rapidly fatal diseases affecting goats, mainly caused by Clostridium perfringens types C and D. Despite widespread vaccination practices, the disease continues to produce significant health and economic losses, particularly in intensive and semi-intensive goat production systems. This review summarizes the current understanding of enterotoxaemia, focusing on its etiology, pathogenesis, epidemiology, risk factors, diagnostic approaches, and updated therapeutic and preventive strategies. C. perfringens overgrows in the intestinal lumen under favorable conditions such as sudden dietary changes, high-energy feeding, or stress-related microbial imbalance. The toxins produced especially epsilon and beta induce intestinal necrosis, vascular damage, neurological signs, and sudden death in affected animals. Recent epidemiological studies highlight a wide global distribution with variable prevalence influenced by climatic conditions, management practices, feeding systems, and regional vaccination uptake. Young and rapidly growing goats remain particularly vulnerable due to their immature immunity and increased nutritional demands. Diagnosis relies on clinical findings supported by bacteriological culture, toxin detection assays, and molecular techniques such as PCR and multiplex PCR. Treatment remains challenging due to the rapid disease course, but antitoxin therapy, supportive care, probiotics, and improved nutritional management can reduce mortality when applied early. Preventive strategies including optimized vaccination schedules, better hygiene practices, biosecurity measures, and the use of microbial modulators remain the cornerstone of control programs. Future research should focus on molecular epidemiology, improved vaccine formulations, field-based diagnostics, and integrated One Health approaches to reduce disease burden and enhance goat productivity.

Article History

Received: Dec 1, 2025; Accepted: Mar 4, 2026; Published: Mar 30, 2026

Recommended Citation

Mohsen, M., Zaman, J. K., Mirani, A. H., Kalhoro, N. H., & Sahito, B. (2026). Enterotoxaemia in Goats: Prevalence, Etiology, Risk Factors, and Therapeutic Approaches: A Comprehensive Review, Journal of Bioresource Management, 13 (1).