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Abstract

Transportation energy constitutes a substantial share of global energy consumption, and its associated contribution to emissions and, by extension, climate change, necessitates intensified efforts toward the development of sustainable transportation fuels. This study investigated the suitability of Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) biomass for pyrolytic bio-oil production as a potential precursor for transportation biofuels. Laboratory-scale pyrolysis at 450-500 °C produced bio-oil, while proximate analysis (wt.%) showed low moisture (5.59), moderate fixed carbon (20.11), high volatile matter (66.25), and relatively high ash (8.05) contents. Ultimate analysis (wt.%) revealed 49.25 carbon, 5.17 hydrogen, 43.90 oxygen, 0.79 nitrogen, and 0.89 sulphur, with Van Krevelen H/C and O/C ratios of 1.25 and 0.67, respectively. The high volatile matter and appreciable fixed carbon and elemental carbon contents indicate good energy potential. But the high oxygen content and O/C ratio suggest the need for upgrading to reduce oxygen content, increase the H/C ratio, and improve the resulting bio-oil quality for transportation fuel applications. Overall, pyrolysis of 1.50 kg of PKS at 450-500 °C produced 200.20 mL of bio-oil, corresponding to a yield of 15.23 wt.%, with a biochar yield of 3.33 wt%. For transportation fuel applications, the bio-oil had a higher heating value (HHV) of 25.64 MJ/kg, below the typical 35-41 MJ/kg range of conventional transportation fuels, while its pH of 5.58 indicated mild acidity. These findings highlight PKS as a potential renewable feedstock for sustainable transportation fuel production, but optimization of pyrolysis conditions and subsequent bio-oil upgrading are required to improve yield and fuel properties.

Article History

Received: Apr 27, 2026; Accepted: Sep 21, 2026; Published: Sep 30, 2026

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